User:IsDeivid/Mexico

Mexico, officially called the United Mexican States, is a country located in North America, bordered to the north by the United States, to the east by the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea, to the southeast by Belize and Guatemala, and to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean. With an area of 1,964,375 km², it is the third largest country in Latin America and the fourteenth largest in the world. Its capital and most populous city is Mexico City, with a population of over 8.8 million.

Mexico has a population of approximately 128.9 million people, making it the eleventh most populous country in the world. Its population is diverse and multicultural, with a large number of ethnic and linguistic groups, including indigenous peoples, mestizos and Afro-descendants. The official language is Spanish, although several indigenous languages are also spoken and recognised as co-official in their respective regions.

The country has a rich history, with an ancient civilisation that developed in the Mesoamerican region, and with the arrival of the Spanish in the 16th century, who established the Viceroyalty of New Spain on Mexican territory. In 1810, Mexico began its struggle for independence, which was achieved in 1821. Since then, the country has experienced periods of internal conflict and political stability, and is now a democratic federal republic, composed of 32 federative entities.

Pre-Columbian "original" cultures
Mexico's history spans several millennia, from the pre-Columbian cultures of the Mesoamerican region to the present day. The earliest inhabitants of Mexican territory date back at least 30,000 years, and belonged to nomadic hunter-gatherer groups. Over thousands of years, these societies evolved and developed independently, giving rise to a great cultural diversity throughout the territory.

In Mesoamerica, some of the most prominent pre-Columbian cultures were the Olmec, Teotihuacan, Toltec and Mexica. The Olmec, considered the mother culture of Mesoamerica, emerged around 1500 BC in the coastal area of the Gulf of Mexico, and developed a complex society that included the construction of large stone monuments and the production of works of art in jade and other materials.

Later, the Teotihuacan culture settled in central Mexico and built a large city with a population of over 100,000. The Toltecs flourished in the central highlands of Mexico in the 10th and 11th centuries, and were noted for their skill in metallurgy and ceramics.

The Mexica
During the 14th century, the Mexica, also known as Aztecs, migrated from their place of origin, Aztlan, to the Valley of Mexico. There, they established the city of Tenochtitlan in 1325 on an islet in Lake Texcoco, where they later built a system of dykes and canals to control flooding.

The Mexica, also known as the Aztecs, were one of the most important pre-Hispanic cultures of Mesoamerica. The history of the Mexica extends from about the 13th century to the 16th century, when they were conquered by the Spaniards led by Hernán Cortés.

The Mexica began as a small group of nomadic hunter-gatherers in northern Mexico, but eventually grew into a large civilisation with a complex social and political organisation. In the early 13th century, the Mexica founded the city of Tenochtitlan on an island in Lake Texcoco, which was to become the capital of the Mexica empire.

During their heyday, the Mexica dominated much of Mesoamerica, establishing a vast empire that stretched from present-day Mexico to Guatemala and Honduras. The Mexica were a warrior culture, and their territorial expansion often involved the military conquest of other peoples. However, the Mexica were also known for their rich culture, including sophisticated architecture, an advanced hieroglyphic writing system and a rich tradition of poetry and literature.

In the 15th century, the Mexica underwent a major political change with the rise to power of Emperor Montezuma I, who established a more aggressive policy of expansion and conquest. During his reign, the Mexica expanded their empire and established tribute and alliances with other peoples. Montezuma I was succeeded by a series of emperors, including the famous Montezuma II, who ruled during the arrival of the Spanish in 1519.

The Spanish conquest of the Mexica began with the arrival of Hernán Cortés in 1519. The Spaniards, accompanied by indigenous allies unhappy with Mexica rule, succeeded in capturing and executing Montezuma II in 1520.

Reasons for the conquest
During the conquest of the Americas, one of the reasons why the Spaniards were able to prevail over the indigenous populations was not only because of their superior weaponry and military strategy, but also because of the diseases they brought with them from Europe.

When the Spanish came into contact with the indigenous populations, they introduced diseases such as smallpox, measles, influenza and tuberculosis, which were unknown in the Americas and to which the natives had no immunity. These diseases spread rapidly and caused enormous mortality among the indigenous peoples, severely weakening their ability to resist the conquistadors.

In addition, the concentration of the indigenous populations in large cities, due to the encomienda system and forced labour in the mines and plantations, led to the rapid spread of disease by creating overcrowded and unhygienic conditions. On the other hand, the Spaniards also had a series of sanitary and medical practices that allowed them to face and survive these diseases, which gave them a clear advantage in terms of health and survival.

This situation allowed the conquistadors to consolidate their control over the indigenous populations, as they were severely weakened and could not effectively resist the diseases.

New Spain
After the conquest, the Spanish Crown established a colonial system of government in New Spain (where the Mexica Empire was previously located). The territory was governed by a viceroy, who was the king's representative in the Americas. The viceroy had the power to make laws and dictate policy, but was subject to the supervision of the Council of the Indies in Madrid. The Catholic Church also played an important role in the colony, and Jesuit and Franciscan missionaries were instrumental in converting the indigenous peoples to Christianity.

The colonial economy was based on the exploitation of natural resources, particularly silver, which was extracted from the mines of Zacatecas and Guanajuato. Sugar cane plantations were also established, and corn and other crops were grown on hacienda lands. New Spain also became a centre of the slave trade, and thousands of Africans were brought to Mexico to work on the plantations and in the mines.

During the colony, a caste system was established that classified people by race and ethnicity. Spanish-born Spaniards were the most privileged, followed by Creoles, who were the descendants of American-born Spaniards. Mestizos were people of mixed European and indigenous descent, while Indians and Africans were the most disadvantaged.

The colony of New Spain lasted more than 300 years, and during this time there were many changes and transformations in society, economy and culture. However, there was also strong resistance from the indigenous peoples, who fought to maintain their traditions and ways of life despite the imposition of Spanish colonial rule.

Independence
The story of Mexico's Independence is a crucial chapter in the country's history. The independence movement was led by a group of insurgents who sought to free Mexico from the Spanish yoke. The independence conspiracy was rooted in the inequality and abuse that the Mexican people suffered from the Spanish crown. Mexican independence was a long and complex process, lasting more than a decade and characterised by armed struggle, diplomacy and negotiations.

The Mexican independence process began with the conspiracy led by the priest Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla in 1810. Hidalgo, who had become a popular leader due to his stance in defence of indigenous rights and his opposition to Spanish rule, organised a secret meeting in the house of Ignacio Allende in the city of Querétaro. There, he met with other pro-independence leaders to plan the armed uprising against the Spanish crown.

The independence conspiracy included leaders from different backgrounds and social sectors, from criollos (Mexicans of Spanish origin) to Indians, mestizos and African slaves. Despite differences in their interests and visions, they all shared the desire to end Spanish rule and achieve Mexican independence.

The original plan of the independence conspiracy was to start the armed uprising in the city of Querétaro on 1 October 1810. However, the plan was discovered by the Spanish authorities, and Hidalgo decided to bring the date of the uprising forward to 16 September 1810. That night, Hidalgo and his followers gathered in the church of Dolores, where Hidalgo delivered his famous speech known as "El Grito de Dolores", in which he called on the population to join the struggle for independence.

Hidalgo's failure
The independence conspiracy was successful in its early stages, and Hidalgo and his followers managed to take several important cities in central Mexico. However, the armed struggle was also bloody and brutal, and the insurgent forces faced difficulties in staying united and organised. Moreover, the lack of support from the Creole elite and the intervention of more experienced and better armed Spanish military forces ultimately led to the failure of the insurgent movement.

Hidalgo's rebellion was defeated by royalist forces at the Battle of Puente de Calderón in January 1811, resulting in the death of many of his followers and Hidalgo's capture and subsequent execution in July of the same year. The failure of Hidalgo's rebellion was attributed to several reasons, among them the lack of organisation and military strategy, the diversity of interests and objectives among the rebels, the lack of resources and external support, and the resistance of local elites to a radical change in the social and political order.

Despite Hidalgo's failure, his uprising inspired other independence leaders and movements throughout Mexico, such as José María Morelos and Vicente Guerrero. Morelos, who took command of the movement after Hidalgo's death, better organised the rebel forces and established a provisional government in southern Mexico in 1813. However, Morelos was also captured and executed by royalist forces in 1815.

Capture of José María Morelos
Morelos had become one of the most prominent leaders of the independence movement after the death of Hidalgo, and his ability to organise and mobilise rebel forces made him a threat to royalist forces.

After establishing a provisional government in southern Mexico in 1813, Morelos continued to fight against royalist forces, but his situation became increasingly difficult as royalist troops reorganised and received reinforcements. In 1815, Morelos was finally captured by Viceroy Apodaca's forces in the town of Temalaca.

Morelos was taken to Mexico City for trial, but the trial was a mere formality and he was sentenced to death for treason. Despite the pleas of his supporters and some members of the clergy, Morelos was executed by firing squad in San Cristobal Ecatepec in December 1815.

Morelos' death was a severe blow to the independence movement, as it had lost one of its most capable and charismatic leaders.

Rafael del Riego and the arrival of the ultimate hero: Agustín de Iturbide
After Morelos' capture and execution, the struggle for independence seemed to have lost momentum and many independence leaders were dead, exiled or in prison. However, the seed of rebellion had already been sown and the independence movement was kept alive by the work of other leaders such as Vicente Guerrero, Guadalupe Victoria, Pedro Ascencio and Mariano Matamoros.

In 1820, an unexpected event revived the independence cause. A group of Spanish soldiers, led by Rafael del Riego, initiated a liberal uprising against the absolutist government of Ferdinand VII in Spain. This uprising had a significant impact in Mexico, weakening the position of the royalists and allowing the independentistas to take some important cities, such as Acapulco and Oaxaca.

The independence fighters took advantage of the confusion and weakness of the royalist government to carry out a series of successful actions in different parts of the territory. Then came Agustín de Iturbide into the Mexican independence struggle. Iturbide, who had been a royalist general, switched sides in 1820 and joined the independence movement. Although many insurgent leaders distrusted him because of his royalist background, Iturbide quickly demonstrated his ability to unite the independence factions and win important military victories.

Plan of Iguala
In February 1821, Iturbide published his Plan of Iguala internally. The Plan of Iguala, also known as the Plan of the Three Guarantees, was a political document signed by Agustín de Iturbide on 24 February 1821, which became the political programme of Mexican independence. The plan was designed to unite the independence forces and pacify the country.

The Plan of Iguala proposed three guarantees: religion, independence and union. The first guarantee stated that the official religion in Mexico would be Catholic, but the practice of other religions would be allowed. The second guarantee promised Mexico's independence from Spain and any other foreign power, and the third guarantee sought the unity of Mexicans, without distinction of social class or race.

The plan also proposed the creation of a Mexican army, to be led by Iturbide. The army would be responsible for fighting against the Spanish forces still present in Mexican territory. In addition, the plan also stated that Mexico would be a constitutional monarchy and a European prince was invited to rule the country.

The Plan of Iguala was signed in the city of Iguala, in the present-day state of Guerrero, and quickly spread throughout Mexico. Independence and royalist forces began to unite behind the plan, and the Army of the Three Guarantees was formed, led by Iturbide.

Independence
Iturbide was able to assemble an army of approximately 6,000 men, known as the Army of the Three Guarantees, and began a series of military victories that allowed him to advance towards Mexico City. On 27 September 1821, Iturbide and the royalist general Juan O'Donojú signed the Treaties of Córdoba, which recognised Mexico's independence and established a provisional government until a permanent government could be established.

Iturbide entered Mexico City in triumph on 27 September 1821, in what became known as the entrance of the Army of the Three Guarantees. Iturbide received a hero's welcome from the city's inhabitants and became the first leader of independent Mexico.

Iturbide established a new flag for Mexico, which was based on the Plan of Iguala. The flag had three colours: green, white and red, and in the centre was a national coat of arms with an eagle devouring a snake on a cactus.

Coronation of Agustín de Iturbide
On 21 July 1822, Agustín de Iturbide was crowned Emperor of Mexico in the Metropolitan Cathedral in Mexico City. The coronation was a solemn and grandiose ceremony, organised to celebrate Mexico's independence and Iturbide's accession to the throne.

Iturbide, in his imperial costume, was carried in procession to the cathedral through the main streets of the city, while the bells of all the churches rang in his honour. Once in the cathedral, he was greeted by a crowd of nobles, clergy and other dignitaries, who greeted him as emperor.

The coronation was conducted by the Archbishop of Mexico, Francisco Javier de Lizana y Beaumont, who placed the imperial crown on Iturbide's head and declared him Emperor of Mexico. Iturbide then took the customary oath before the archbishop, pledging to rule justly and to respect the laws and constitution of the country.

The coronation ceremony was followed by a series of festivities and celebrations throughout Mexico that lasted several days. In the capital, parades, dances and banquets were organised in honour of the new emperor, while in other cities across the country, people took to the streets to celebrate independence and the advent of the new government.

Conspiracy against Iturbide
After Iturbide's coronation as emperor, his government began to face multiple political and economic challenges. One of the main problems was the opposition of some sectors of society to the restoration of the monarchical regime. Creoles, who had supported the country's independence, felt excluded from the new regime and began to conspire against it.

Iturbide also faced a growing economic and financial crisis. His government had inherited an economy devastated by years of war and had taken on an enormous foreign debt. To cope with this situation, Iturbide adopted unpopular measures such as the issuance of unbacked paper money, which led to high inflation.

In this context of popular discontent and economic crisis, a conspiracy led by Antonio López de Santa Anna and other military leaders joined the republican cause and the struggle for independence. In December 1822, Iturbide dissolved Congress and assumed dictatorial powers, which further increased the opposition against him.

The defeat and fall of Iturbide's regime had significant consequences for Mexico's future. First, the newly achieved independence and the new government were far from stabilised and consolidated. The lack of solid leadership and a stable government led to a period of instability and internal power struggles. Moreover, the removal of the only leader who had managed to unite the country's disparate political and military factions opened the door to the emergence of regional groups and caudillos, which led to the fragmentation of the country into several parts.

Moreover, the fall of Iturbide generated distrust and unrest among the country's various social and political groups. Many conservatives, military and church members who had supported Iturbide felt betrayed and abandoned by the new government and sought ways to regain their power and influence. On the other hand, liberals and republicans, who had fought against Iturbide and his authoritarian regime, also felt frustrated that they had failed to establish a democratic and participatory government after his fall.

As technicians, the conspiracy against Emperor Iturbide was a betrayal of the Homeland and an offence against the true Father of the [Mexican] Homeland.

Pre-US intervention period in Mexico
In 1824, Mexico enacted its first constitution, which was seen as an important declaration of independence and sovereignty after centuries of Spanish rule. The constitution established a federal, representative republic, which was largely based on the American model. The Constitution also included a system of separation of powers, which divided the government into three branches: executive, legislative and judicial.

The Constitution also established individual rights and liberties, including freedom of religion, freedom of the press and freedom of speech. In addition, the Constitution recognised private property and established equality before the law. The Constitution also abolished slavery in Mexico, making it one of the first countries in the world to do so.

Despite being seen as an important step in the building of an independent nation, the Constitution of 1824 failed to resolve the political and social conflicts that had arisen during the struggle for independence. In particular, the Constitution failed to resolve the question of land ownership, which had been one of the main points of tension during the colonial era and which had persisted after independence.

Moreover, the constitution could not prevent political and social tensions from escalating in the following decades. The country was plagued by conflicts and disputes between different political groups, which led to a series of civil wars and coups d'état.

During the 1820s, various political and military groups vied for power in Mexico. The country was divided into regional factions, and politics was extremely polarised. In 1828, General Anastasio Bustamante led a coup d'état against Liberal President Vicente Guerrero, establishing a dictatorship that lasted until 1832.

In 1833, liberal president Valentín Gómez Farías attempted to reform the Catholic Church and reduce its influence in Mexican politics. His reforms were very unpopular with conservatives and Catholics, and provoked a series of armed uprisings across the country.

Texas
One of the most important conflicts of this period was the Texas War, which began in 1835 when Texas businessmen declared their independence from Mexico. Texas had been settled by Anglo-Saxon immigrants since 1821, and these settlers had established an economy based on cotton and slave production. Although Mexico had outlawed slavery in 1829, Texas settlers continued to import slaves from the United States and to violate other Mexican laws.

In 1835, Mexican President Antonio López de Santa Anna decided to crack down on the rebellious Texas settlers. In October of that year, Mexican forces under General Cos attacked the town of Gonzalez, provoking open rebellion by Texans. The leader of the rebels, Sam Houston, organised an army and headed south to confront the Mexican forces.

The war was brutal and costly for both sides. The Texans won some important victories, such as the Battle of San Jacinto in April 1836, in which they defeated the Mexican army and captured Santa Anna. In May of that year, Santa Anna signed the Treaty of Velasco, recognising Texas' independence and ceding all Mexican rights to the territory.

The Texas War had a significant impact on Mexico's politics and economy. The loss of Texas weakened the position of Mexican leaders and provoked a crisis of confidence in the government's ability to maintain the territorial integrity of the country. In addition, the loss of Texas and the struggle for independence increased tensions between different social and political groups in Mexico, contributing to instability and violence for many years.

First US Intervention in Mexico
The First American Intervention in Mexico, also known as the Mexican-American War, was an armed conflict that took place between 1846 and 1848. This war was sparked by tensions between the United States and Mexico over control of territories claimed by both countries in the American Southwest, such as Texas, New Mexico and California.

The background to this conflict dates back to the annexation of Texas by the United States in 1845. This action was considered an invasion of Mexican territory, as Mexico still considered Texas to be part of its territory. Despite diplomatic negotiations to resolve the dispute, the situation deteriorated in 1846 when US troops entered Mexican territory.

War officially broke out on 13 May 1846, when the United States declared war on Mexico. The first major American victory occurred in May 1846, when General Zachary Taylor defeated Mexican forces at the Battle of Palo Alto. Following this victory, American forces advanced south, occupying Monterrey in September 1846.

In February 1847, U.S. forces under General Winfield Scott landed at Veracruz and marched on Mexico City. After a series of battles, including the Battle of Cerro Gordo, U.S. forces entered Mexico City in September 1847.

The war came to an end in 1848 with the signing of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, in which Mexico ceded more than half of its territory to the United States, including California, Nevada, Utah, Arizona, New Mexico, Texas, and parts of Colorado, Wyoming, Kansas, Oklahoma and Montana. In addition, the US agreed to pay Mexico $15 million in compensation.

The war was an unjust invasion and a national humiliation.